Table 1 Summary of challenges, risks and gender roles that were examined at the interface Human / Animal / Wildlife, with some known gender-sensitive and rights-based measures and their known outcomes

Emerging Infectious Disease

Increased risks in regions with higher human densities and fragmented habitats, wildlife markets.

Identification of sex-based (e.g. pregnancy) and gender-based differences in risks and exposure between men and women (e.g. hunters, women with wild meat preparation, women as family health carers etc).

Gender Analysis conducted for some EIDs (Ebola, Zika, HIV) & Training initiated.

Needs integration of environmental component and implementation.

[37, 47, 50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57]

Endemic Zoonotic Diseases

Increased risk in low resource settings.

Risks associated with gender roles have not been evaluated.

Literature review on brucellosis’ impact on women’s reproductive life found only one relevant reference.

Needs further investigating.

[58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66]

Pollution with endocrine disrupters’ chemicals (EDC)

Regulations under-estimate health risks. Effects on reproductive life can appear at the next generation. Needs further investigating.

[67,68,69,70,71,72,73]

Human-Wildlife Conflict

Conflict arises from economic loss in agriculture, competition over food and water resources, fatalities in communities already ranking as the poorest in the world- No consideration of gendered impacts. Needs further investigating.

[74,75,76,77]

Poor access to natural resources and health care for Indigenous People, Local Communities, ethnic minorities

Poverty sustained by discriminatory processes, with women and girls bearing the burden of poverty and health care.

Sense of “Biocultural dislocation” contributes to poor health status.

Minority ethnic groups more severely affected by Covid-19 pandemic.

IPLC’s rights need to be fully secured and their traditional knowledge preserved.

[78,79,80,81,82,83,84]

Food insecurity

One in 3 women affected by anemia.

Perpetuates poverty cycles.

Poorer access to services, technology, finances, land than men.

[23, 41, 85]

Climate change

Increased vulnerability and impacts associated with gender roles.

Indigenous women particularly vulnerable through heavy reliance on natural resources and racial discrimination.

[41, 42, 86, 87]

Women’s roles at the interface

Characteristics

References

Agriculture

Share of women in agriculture under-estimated, increasing, mainly subsistence agriculture.

[23, 88,89,90]

Health care

Represent > 75% of health care workers.

Both paid and unpaid.

Great barriers to health education and services with gender norms.

Economic weight perpetuates poverty cycle.

[91,92,93,94]

Plant biodiversity

Broad ethnobotanical knowledge and use of plant biodiversity.

Wild plant harvesting used as a buffer from insecurity.

Home gardening and seed selection increase resilience.

[95, 96]

Livestock

Poultry often the only livestock under women’s control, plays a critical role in poverty reduction and in vulnerable households.

Role in selection and maintenance of breeds’ diversity.

Greater exposure to EID’s risks.

[92,93,94, 97]

Other natural resources

Managing nearly all water-and energy-related aspects.

Increased risks of injuries, sexual and physical violence.

[29, 41, 98]

Examples of gender-sensitive and/or rights-based measures

Known outcomes

References

Community-based governance systems for natural resources

Improved wealth and health of communities. Improved conservation of natural resources.

[76, 99, 100]

Recognition of indigenous management systems of natural resources

Improved conservation and health.

Conservation of bio-cultural heritage.

[101]

Granting legal rights to ecosystems

Recognition of Indigenous People worldviews. New ways to protect ecosystems incl. transboundary ones

[102]

Vision of well- being of communities -Buen Vivir- in relation to their cultural and natural environment

Very strong environmental dimension with the Rights of Nature inscribed in the constitution.

[103]

State aspirational goals of good health, well-being, quality education

New models of societal progress with a better recognition of gender roles.

[104]

Women as head of state

Common features cited as resilience, pragmatism, benevolence, trust in collective common sense, mutual aid and humility

Cited as better managers of the COVID-19 pandemic.

[105]

Presence of women law makers

Advances in gender equality, education and health care issues incl. Sexual and reproductive health, environmental issues, access to new economic opportunities.

[24, 106,107,108]

Gender equity in businesses

Improve business outcomes, creativity and innovation, attracts talents.

Women more prone to social businesses.

[109]

Social and economic empowerment at household level

Improved health, education and quality of life of families and society.

Breaks poverty cycles.

Consolidate women as agents of deep transformative change (more concerned with environmental and climate issues than men).

[42, 87, 108]