Controlling emerging zoonoses at the animal-human interface

Mummah, Riley O.; Hoff, Nicole A.; Rimoin, Anne W.; Lloyd-Smith, James O.

doi:10.1186/s42522-020-00024-5

One Health Outlook

Table 1 A collection of systems which have implemented control measures targeted at spillover animal-to-human transmission, human-to-human transmission, or both and their associated reproductive numbers

From: Controlling emerging zoonoses at the animal-human interface

Pathogen	R	Transmission mode targeted	Intervention	References
Subcritical pathogens
Avian influenza (H7N9)	0.06 to 0.35 [17]	Spillover	Reductions in poultry exports Market disinfection Closure of live poultry trading activities	[17,18,19,20,21]
		Human-to-human	Handwashing Social distancing
		Both	Poultry trade regulations Health education campaigns
Avian influenza (H5N1)	0.05 to 0.2 [22]	Spillover	Culling poultry	[23, 24]
		Human-to-human	Active case surveillance
		Both	Vaccination
Nipah	0.48 [25]	Spillover	Avoid consumption of palm sap Covers for palm sap collection vessels	[26]
Nipah	0.48 [25]	Human-to-human	Nosocomial interventions	[26]
Monkeypox	~ 0.3 in 1980s [11]	Spillover	Reduce contact with reservoir animals	[27,28,29,30]
		Human-to-human	Improved diagnostics for early case detection Vaccinating healthcare workers
		Both	Smallpox vaccination Community-based interventions
MERS	0.45 [12]	Spillover	Reduction of human contact with camels Camel vaccination	[12, 31,32,33]
MERS	0.45 [12]	Human-to-human	Nosocomial precautions Case isolation	[12, 31,32,33]
Lassa	0.73 [34]	Spillover	Rodent control	[34,35,36,37,38]
Lassa	0.73 [34]	Human-to-human	Nosocomial precautions (PPE) Contact precautions (household and hospital settings)	[34,35,36,37,38]
Post-elimination measles	0.45 [39]	Spillover (reintroduction)	Targeted vaccination of international travelers	[39,40,41]
Post-elimination measles	0.45 [39]	Both	Vaccination	[39,40,41]
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF)	< 1^a	Human-to-human (nosocomial)	Case isolation Contact precautions (PPE)	[42,43,44]
Supercritical pathogens
SARS-CoV	2.7 [45]	Spillover	Culling civets Reducing contacts in live markets	[45, 46]
SARS-CoV	2.7 [45]	Human-to-human	Quarantine Case isolation Contact precautions (PPE)	[45, 46]
SARS-CoV-2	2.2–6.47 [47, 48]	Spillover	Market closure	[49, 50]
SARS-CoV-2	2.2–6.47 [47, 48]	Human-to-human	Social distancing Travel restrictions Contact precautions (PPE) Quarantine and isolation	[49, 50]
Ebola	1.5 to 2.5 [51,52,53]	Spillover	Avoid contact with animals found dead Vaccination of nonhuman primates	[51, 54,55,56,57,58,59]
		Human-to-human	Safe burial Contact precautions (PPE) Drug treatments Ring vaccination
		Both	Vaccination of general population
Yellow fever	4.8 [62]	Spillover	Vector control	[60, 61]
		Human-to-human	Urban vector control
		Both	Vaccination Protective behavior (PPE)

^a Human-to-human transmission has been reported in nosocomial settings but is rare

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